The identity of the United States, unlike nations forged by land or ethnic heritage, was founded on an idea. This concept, originating in the Enlightenment, necessitates a continuous creation of identity through literature, with novels serving as crucial articulations of the American experience.
Scholars trace the call for a distinct American literature back to 1776, intensifying after the War of 1812 when the nation sought to establish itself as a cultural force alongside its political power. The term "great American novel" was first coined in 1868 by John William DeForest, who expressed concern that such a definitive work had yet to be written.
While the body of American literature is vast, a consensus has emerged around certain novels that capture the nation's essence. These works often feature a "democratic collective that’s in distress in one way or another," operating under immense pressure and anguish, allowing national themes to play out within their narratives.
These seminal novels collectively present a darker portrait of the United States than might be expected, united in their assertion that America is not an innocent country.
The Scarlet Letter (1850)
Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The Scarlet Letter" is a foundational text, recognized early on as a significant piece of American fiction. The novel's tale of Hester Prynne, ostracized for adultery in Puritan Boston, serves as a metaphor for America's recurring tendencies toward mob mentality and prudishness, while also highlighting individual independence and self-determination. The novel underscores the somber Puritanism that shaped the American experiment, framing the nation as an idea born between a cemetery and a prison.
Moby-Dick (1851)
Herman Melville's "Moby-Dick," a story of Captain Ahab's obsessive pursuit of a white whale, was not widely appreciated in its time. Its revival in the mid-20th century, however, revealed its prophetic nature and modernist sensibilities. The novel features a diverse crew, representing a microcosm of American society, whose collective decision to follow Ahab's vengeful quest is seen as a "democratic tragedy." It illustrates the vulnerability of democracy to charismatic leadership and the potentially tragic outcome of America's ambitious, chaotic drive.
The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn (1884)
Mark Twain's "The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn," initially popular but not critically elevated until after Twain's death, is considered by some to be the root of all modern American literature. The novel follows Huck Finn's journey down the Mississippi River with Jim, an escaped enslaved man. The complex relationship between Huck and Jim, culminating in Huck's decision to defy societal norms and help Jim escape, is often interpreted as America confronting its original sin of slavery. However, the novel's later sections and its depiction of Jim's re-enslavement are seen by some, including Toni Morrison, as a metaphor for the failures of Reconstruction and the contingent nature of freedom.
The Great Gatsby (1925)
F. Scott Fitzgerald's "The Great Gatsby" explores the darker side of the American dream. Jay Gatsby's pursuit of wealth and the unattainable Daisy Buchanan, fueled by mysterious and ill-gotten gains, exposes the hollowness of the "bootstrapper" ideal and questions the notion of American meritocracy. Despite the corrupt underpinnings of Gatsby's ambition, Fitzgerald's lyrical prose captures the poignant beauty of his yearning. The novel suggests that capitalist striving, while alluring, offers no true redemption and that the pursuit of wealth can be morally compromised.
Beloved (1887)
Toni Morrison's "Beloved" confronts the enduring trauma of slavery. The novel tells the story of Sethe, a formerly enslaved woman haunted by the ghost of the child she killed to save her from bondage. Published to acclaim and later winning the Pulitzer Prize, "Beloved" forced a reckoning with the deep scars left by slavery on individuals, families, and the nation itself. Morrison's work questions the very definition of humanity and who has access to it, arguing that America has never fully overcome the sins of its past and remains haunted by its legacy of slavery.
These novels, despite their critical portrayals, are celebrated for offering clear-eyed self-knowledge. They serve as a vital part of America's ongoing quest to define its national identity, consistently reminding readers of the complex and often harsh truths about the nation's character and its struggle to live up to its founding ideals.