Global Conflicts Threaten Cultural Heritage, Accountability Remains Elusive
From Ukraine to Gaza, the destruction of cultural sites highlights a persistent challenge in international law and political will.
Recent conflicts around the globe have underscored the vulnerability of cultural heritage, raising questions about accountability for destruction and looting. In Ukraine, August saw a significant increase in Russian aerial attacks, including strikes that damaged six UNESCO-protected sites in Odesa alone. According to Ukraine's Ministry of Culture, 148 cultural heritage sites were reported damaged or destroyed in the past month. Activist groups have filed complaints with the International Criminal Court (ICC) against Russia for cultural destruction and looting, but no indictments have been issued.
Bijan Rouhani, a senior researcher at the Endangered Archaeology in the Middle East and North Africa project, notes that while the legal framework for protecting cultural heritage is robust on paper, its practical application falls short. "No state actor has ever been tried for this offence," Rouhani stated. "The obstacle is no longer evidence. We have satellite imagery, remote sensing and monitoring teams. The obstacle is jurisdiction and political will."
A Casualty of War
The conflict in Ukraine is one of several recent wars demonstrating the devastating impact of hostilities on cultural heritage. In Gaza, the Great Omari Mosque, a site representing the city's identity through its history as a pagan temple, Byzantine church, and mosque, was largely destroyed in an Israeli strike in 2023. The Israeli military stated the strike targeted Hamas. Tareq Abu Dayyeh, a Gaza-based vendor of craftwork and antiquities, expressed heartbreak over the destruction, stating, "When your past is destroyed, you have no present."
In Sudan, the civil war has imperiled the Meroe Pyramids, ancient structures built by the Kingdom of Kush. UNESCO has warned that the fighting has halted preservation efforts, leaving the pyramids vulnerable to erosion. Iran has reported damage to over 100 sites, including UNESCO-listed Golestan Palace and Naqsh-e Jahan Square, due to aerial attacks in February.
A Difficult Task
The 1954 Hague Convention, adopted in response to World War II, was the first international treaty dedicated to protecting cultural heritage during armed conflict. Subsequent protocols, including a Second Protocol in 1999, aimed to strengthen these protections, particularly for sites under enhanced protection. The establishment of the ICC in 2002 included provisions for prosecuting deliberate attacks on cultural buildings as war crimes.
Despite these measures, accountability has been challenging. The ICC has secured only one conviction for such an offense: Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi, a Malian jihadist leader sentenced to nine years for directing attacks that destroyed mausoleums and a mosque in Timbuktu. Rouhani suggests that true deterrence would require more than legal frameworks, advocating for "arrest warrants for the commanders who authorise these strikes, prosecutions in national courts under universal jurisdiction, and targeted sanctions on named individuals."
Heritage Ambulances
In Ukraine, efforts are underway to safeguard national heritage. The Aliph Foundation has provided millions of dollars to Ukrainian museums for the relocation of valuable items, utilizing "heritage ambulances" – vehicles equipped with specialized teams and climate-controlled storage. Alexandra Fiebig, a project manager with Aliph, noted that teams continue to monitor the condition of relocated artifacts. Blue Shield International, often referred to as the "Red Cross for culture," works with armed forces and local heritage officials in war zones.
Dr. Emma Cunliffe, head of operations for Blue Shield International, highlighted the bravery of Ukrainians documenting damage at personal risk, emphasizing the government's efforts despite competing priorities. Similar civilian-led preservation efforts have been seen elsewhere, such as in Mosul, Iraq, where Isis fighters destroyed the city's Central Library in 2015, burning thousands of books and rare manuscripts.
A Lucrative Trade
Looting of cultural sites is another significant byproduct of conflict. In Iraq and Syria, the trafficking of priceless artifacts, including during and after the Isis occupation, was conducted on a large scale. A multi-year investigation by the U.S. Justice Department led to the tracing and return of thousands of looted artifacts to Iraq. Regular international police and customs operations seize stolen antiquities, but the trade remains lucrative.
In Sudan, the national museum in Khartoum was stripped of its treasures in 2023 when the RSF faction took control. While specialized training has aided recovery efforts in some conflict zones, much of Sudan's historical display may be lost permanently.
Slim Chance of Deterrence
The challenges in mitigating the destruction and looting of cultural heritage are immense. While international regulations exist, their implementation is often hindered by a lack of political will. Local initiatives, supported by organizations like Aliph and Blue Shield International, can offer localized protection. However, with the current low probability of consequences for destroying heritage sites, effective deterrence remains elusive.
The destruction of Palmyra in Syria by Isis, which included the bombing of temples, stands as a stark example. The archaeologist Khaled al-Asaad, who had protected the ancient city for decades, was beheaded by Isis for refusing to reveal the location of hidden artifacts. Though honored globally, political complexities have since led to his name being removed from a school named in his honor in Syria.