Harmful polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), commonly known as ‘forever chemicals,’ were detected in 89% of surface water sites across Scotland in 2025, according to the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (Sepa). The chemicals were also found at 57% of the agency’s groundwater sites.
PFAS are a group of thousands of chemicals used in various consumer products due to their heat, water, and oil resistance. They are termed ‘forever chemicals’ because some can persist in the environment for thousands of years. While Sepa reported that no samples exceeded relevant environmental or groundwater standards, the agency has been monitoring PFAS since 2009. The data for 2025 was collected from 97 surface water sites, including lochs and rivers, and 37 groundwater sites.
Concentrations of PFAS in Scotland are generally lower than those detected in England, according to Sepa. The findings are detailed in the 2025 PFAS Water Quality Monitoring Report, which recommends continued and potentially expanded monitoring.
Professor Paul Dale, Sepa chief regulator, stated that the widespread detection of PFAS in Scotland’s water environment is not unexpected given their extensive use over decades. He acknowledged public concern about the findings, explaining that the expanded monitoring program aims to provide a clearer understanding of PFAS presence and guide future regulatory efforts.
However, Professor Dale cautioned that monitoring data alone does not determine human health risk and should not be interpreted as direct evidence of impacts on human health. He described PFAS as a complex environmental challenge requiring long-term action from governments, regulators, and industry.
Scientific evidence links PFAS exposure to an increased risk of certain cancers, immune suppression, and fertility and developmental problems. Humans can be exposed to these chemicals through drinking water, food, dust, inhalation, and skin contact. PFAS are found in everyday items such as nonstick cookware and food packaging. A 2020 study by environmental charity Fidra found PFAS in packaging from major UK supermarkets and all tested takeaways. The chemicals can also enter the food chain through pesticides, contaminated water, and sewage used as fertilizer for farmland.